Introduction

Iran receives approximately 430 billion cubic meters of annual precipitation, of which about 20% is lost as flash floods. This challenge is exacerbated by the country's semi-arid climate and rapid population growth, making water increasingly scarce (Foltz, 2002; Karami & Hayati, 2005; Nouri et al., 2023). Floodwater spreading on aquifers has emerged as a viable strategy to control floods, optimize water use, and recharge groundwater in Iran and other developing countries (Kerr et al., 2002; Sherif et al., 2023). These projects aim to boost agricultural productivity, conserve natural resources, and reduce poverty, particularly in regions with low agricultural potential and food insecurity (Hope, 2007; Ahmed et al., 2022). However, FWSPs face significant limitations due to complex social interactions (Calder, 2005; Jalili Pirani & Mousavi, 2025), sometimes causing social hardship by altering water access and disproportionately affecting the poorest groups (Bakhtiar et al., 1997; World Bank, 2004; Taylor et al., 2026). Benefit distribution varies among stakeholders, with downstream water access potentially increasing while upstream land access is modified (Kerr et al., 2002; Hope, 2007; Lamsal et al., 2024). The Davood Rashid FWSP in Lorestan Province exemplifies such initiatives, designed to improve hydrological conditions and enhance land productivity (Karimi Sangchini et al., 2025). These projects extend beyond technical dimensions into social and economic spheres, influencing household livelihoods dependent on agriculture and livestock (Timsina et al., 2025). Previous studies have yielded diverse findings: Bagherian et al. (2015) found positive attitudes among villagers in Iran; Yaebiyo et al. (2015) demonstrated substantial household income increases in Ethiopia, though benefits were unevenly distributed; Mosaffaie and Salehpour Jam (2020) found that biological and biomechanical measures primarily reduced flood peaks, while structural measures had limited impact. Lee et al. (2022) emphasized integrating social impact evaluation into water management, while Karimi Sangchini (2023) found high stakeholder capacity for engagement in Rimeleh watershed. Despite this research, most FWSP evaluations in Iran focus on technical and hydrological indicators, with limited systematic assessment of social and economic dimensions—particularly drivers of public participation (Sarreshtehdari et al., 2022; Whitley et al., 2025). International experiences underscore that participatory approaches and attention to social aspects are decisive for sustainability (Taleshi, 2018; Flood et al., 2022; Whitley et al., 2025). To address this gap, the present study evaluates the social and economic impacts of the Ab-Bid Sarbisheh FWSP in Khuzestan Province, addressing three key questions: perceived effects on household livelihoods and the local economy, community acceptance and participation levels, and critical factors influencing participation along with effective strategies to enhance it. The findings aim to enrich water governance literature and provide a practical framework for inclusive planning and sustainable implementation of future watershed initiatives while reducing the gap between technical objectives and local community needs.



Materials and methods

Study Area

The Ab-Bid Sarbisheh floodwater spreading and artificial recharge station is located in Gotvand County, Khuzestan Province, southwestern Iran (48°37′–48°46′ E, 32°17′–32°21′ N). The area ranges from 120 to 150 meters above sea level and experiences a warm semi-arid climate (De Martonne classification) with average annual precipitation of 417.8 mm. Temperatures reach an absolute maximum of 53.3°C in July, with a mean annual temperature of approximately 25°C, and the potential annual evaporation rate is 2139.2 mm (Chitsazan & Movahedian, 2015).

This applied research employed a descriptive-analytical and survey-based approach. The statistical population consisted of 228 farming and livestock-holding household heads from four villages adjacent to the Ab-Bid Sarbisheh FWSP in Gotvand County, Khuzestan Province. Using Cochran's formula with a 95% confidence level and 5% margin of error, a sample size of 143 respondents was determined. Data were collected through a researcher-developed questionnaire comprising three sections: demographic and socioeconomic information, 15 items assessing factors influencing public participation (five-point Likert scale), and 15 items evaluating strategies for enhancing participation. Content validity was confirmed by a panel of ten experts in watershed management, natural resources, and agricultural economics. Reliability was established through a pilot study (n=30), yielding a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.829, indicating good internal consistency. Data analysis employed both descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, means, standard deviations) and inferential statistics using IBM SPSS and Excel. The Binomial test examined community willingness to participate, while the Friedman test ranked factors and strategies influencing participation. Statistical significance was evaluated at the 95% confidence level.



Results and Discussion

Socio-Demographic and Economic Characteristics

The socio-demographic characteristics of the study community reveal a dual structural profile that provides important insights into the community's capacity for participation and the long-term sustainability of the floodwater spreading project. On the one hand, the findings indicate a relatively high level of social capital among local residents. Nearly half of the respondents (47.55%) reported participating through physical labor, while an additional 18.18% contributed both financially and physically (Table 1 and Fig. 2). These findings suggest that community members are willing to invest not only financial resources but also their time and labor in collective watershed management activities, reflecting a strong sense of local ownership and collective responsibility. Such forms of participation represent valuable social assets that can substantially enhance the effectiveness and sustainability of community-based natural resource management initiatives. These findings are consistent with those reported by Bagherian et al. (2015), who documented high levels of local acceptance of floodwater spreading projects across several provinces of Iran, and by Karimi Sangchini (2023), who highlighted the strong willingness of rural stakeholders in the Rimeleh watershed to participate in watershed management activities. Similar conclusions have also been reported in recent international studies, which emphasize that communities possessing stronger social capital, higher levels of trust, and greater collective engagement are more likely to support and sustain watershed and water resource management projects over the long term (Whitley et al., 2025).



Willingness for Public Participation and Project Acceptance

The Binomial test results revealed that respondents' willingness to participate was statistically significant (p < 0.0001). Physical participation represented the predominant form of involvement (47.55%), followed by combined financial and physical participation (18.18%). The high level of project acceptance appears to be driven by a combination of economic, institutional, and socio-cultural factors, including responsiveness to immediate livelihood needs, trust in local project implementers, and the strong tradition of collective cooperation within rural communities.

Ranking of Factors Affecting Public Participation

The Friedman test revealed statistically significant differences in the perceived importance of the factors influencing public participation (χ² = 639.68, df = 14, p-value < 0.0001). The three highest-ranked factors were livelihood diversification (mean rank = 11.13), inter-institutional collaboration (mean rank = 10.36), and improvements in welfare facilities (mean rank = 10.26). In contrast, increasing household income received the lowest mean rank (3.37), indicating that respondents considered direct income enhancement to be the least influential factor motivating their participation. This finding suggests that participation decisions are influenced by a broader set of expected benefits—including livelihood security, employment opportunities, access to water resources, and community development—rather than by immediate financial gains alone.

Ranking of Strategies for Improving Participation

The Friedman test results revealed significant differences in the perceived importance of strategies for enhancing public participation (χ² = 947.16, df = 14, p-value < 0.0001). Respondents primarily prioritized tangible and outcome-oriented strategies, with improving water resources ranked first (mean rank = 12.35), followed by improving rural facilities (mean rank = 12.00) and increasing income and land productivity (mean rank = 11.65). In contrast, institutional and process-oriented strategies, including assistance in obtaining financial support (mean rank = 3.19) and the utilization of local civil society organizations (mean rank = 4.29), received the lowest priorities. This pattern may reflect limited confidence in formal financial institutions and weak institutional connections within the community.

Synthesis and Overall Findings

The findings demonstrate that public participation in the Ab-Bid Sarbisheh FWSP is not determined by a single factor but emerges from the interaction of economic, social, and structural dimensions. From an economic perspective, participation is strongly influenced by tangible livelihood needs, including employment opportunities, livelihood diversification, and agricultural productivity improvements. From a social perspective, the relatively high level of physical participation reflects the importance of existing social capital and local cooperation networks. However, structural limitations—including educational constraints, limited involvement of women, weak economic safety mechanisms, and insufficient institutional capacity building—may restrict the project's long-term sustainability. The project should therefore be viewed not merely as hydraulic infrastructure but as a socio-ecological system in which environmental outcomes are closely linked to community capabilities and institutional arrangements. Future watershed management programs should adopt integrated approaches that simultaneously strengthen livelihood opportunities, enhance social capital, and remove structural barriers to inclusive participation.



Conclusion

This study examined the socio-economic impacts of the Ab-Bid Sarbisheh Floodwater Spreading Project. The findings revealed considerable social capital within the local community, reflected by a 47.55% physical participation rate and only 10.49% non-participation. However, structural challenges—including an aging population (40.56% over 50 years), low educational attainment (72.03% below diploma level), and lack of insurance coverage (70.63%)—pose serious threats to the long-term sustainability of the project. The most influential factors driving participation were identified as diversification of income sources (mean rank = 11.13), institutional collaboration (mean rank = 10.36), and improvement of welfare facilities (mean rank = 10.26). Sustainable success requires a shift from a purely technical approach toward an integrated socio-ecological management framework that simultaneously addresses livelihood enhancement, institutional capacity building, and inclusion of vulnerable groups. Proposed recommendations include youth empowerment through rural entrepreneurship, establishment of local cooperatives and micro-insurance schemes, improvement of water resources and agricultural productivity, and implementation of continuous participatory monitoring. The proposed framework offers a replicable model for similar watershed management initiatives in water-limited regions.